RTI^2 - Position Paper - Response to Intervention in Tennessee Schools Assignment

RTI^2 - Position Paper - Response to Intervention in Tennessee Schools - Assignment Example lem-solving model for addressing diverse student needs through high quality interventions and instructions tailored to student outcomes- learning rate and performance level (TN Core, 2013). It identifies students having particular learning disability thus requiring special education from students with normal abilities. It identifies such students using a three-tier approach. In this paper, I support the use of Response to Intervention in Tennessee schools. First, I am in favor of the comprehensive resolution of the student qualification for participation in the model. The tiered instructions of the model help to minimize probability of false positives, that is, it precisely identifies the true student victims of special needs excluding those students who appear disabled when actually they are not. In this way, it will minimize the resources directed at addressing the disability problem in academics with the saved resourced being used to address other challenges facing the education sector or any other sector of the economy. It also save the parents and families of the students who would have been wrongly identified with special learning needs from psychological suffering resulting from empathizing with their child. More so, it reduces the work load of practitioners administering the model’s assessment instructions. Second, I support Response to Intervention model because of its early intercession to the problem of special needs as this enables the school provide effective and comprehensive support to the students identified with such challenge. I believe the science research-based and high quality interventions used are more reliable as they are thoroughly tested and approved before their adoption thereby purging risks of undesired negative effects in their usage (Fucks and Fuchs, 2005). Basing on the individual performance levels and learning rates help to address the root cause of the problem as every student has unique causes for poor academic performance

Critically evaluate the claim that culture is best understood as a system of symbolic classification Essay Example for Free

Critically evaluate the claim that culture is best understood as a system of symbolic classification Essay Introduction                      This essay will focus on evaluating the claim that culture is perfectly understood as a symbolic classification system. Culture can be defined as cumulative deposit of beliefs, attitudes, knowledge, values, experience, roles, meanings, spatial relations, hierarchies, notions of time, possessions and material objects obtained by a group of individuals in the course of the generations through group and individual thriving. Culture involves patterns implicit and explicit, for and of behavior obtained and conveyed through symbols, representing the unique achievement of the human groups, comprising of their personifications in artifacts; the fundamental core of culture include the traditional ideas and particularly their emotionally involved values; culture systems on the other hand may be deemed as products of action. A symbol refers to any object, usually material, meant to stand for another, even though there is no significant relationship. Typically culture is founded on a shared set of meanings and symbols. Symbolic culture allows human communication and therefore must be taught. The symbolic culture is more adaptable and malleable than biological evolution. Humans subconsciously and consciously, strive always in making logic of their surrounding world. Some symbols like objects, words, gestures and signs assist individuals in understanding the world. Usually symbols offer clues in understanding the experiences. They usually express familiar meanings which are shared by the societies. Uniform and badge held by police officers represent symbols of law or authority enforcement. When an officer is seen wearing a uniform or in a squad car enhances reassurance in man citizens, and anger, fear, or annoyance among others (Browne et al, 1990, p38-p42). The world has countless symbols. Company logos, traffic signs and sports uniforms are some of the symbols. A gold sign in some cultures symbolizes marriage. There are some symbols which are very functional; for example, stop signs offers valuable instruction. They belong to the material culture since they are physical objects, however they function like symbols, in addition they pass on nonmaterial cultural meanings. Some of the symbols are only helpful in what they signify. Gold medals, trophies and blue ribbons, for instance, provide no other function other than representing the accomplishments. However numerous objects have both nonmaterial and material symbolic value. Symbols are usually taken for granted easily. Few individuals challenge or even consider sticking the figure signs on the public bathrooms’ doors. However those figures signs are more than being mere symbols which informs women and men which bathrooms they are supposed to use. Also they uphold the value, in U SA, that restrooms ought to be gender exclusive. Even if stalls are comparatively private, most places do not offer bathrooms that are unisex (Hoijer, 1954, p. 14). Symbols frequently get recognized when used out of context. Symbols express strong messages and are used unconventionally. Even destruction of symbols is perceived to be symbolic. Effigies signifying public figures are beaten so as to express anger at particular leaders. Crowds in 1989 tore down Berlin wall a symbols which decades-old of the division between West and East, capitalism and communism. While diverse cultures have different systems of symbols however language is common to all. Language refers to a symbolic system by which individuals’ converse and through which the culture is spread. Various languages include a system of symbols utilized for written communication, whereas others rely on nonverbal actions and spoken communication. Societies regularly share one language, and a lot of languages have the same fundamental components. An alphabet refers to a written system which is made of symbolic shapes which refer to sound which is spoken. These symbols taken together , express definite meanings. English alphabet employs a mixture of 26 letters in order to create words; where these 26 letters create over 600,000 English words which are recognized (Smith, 2001, p. 46). Case study 1                      Additionally, through using language, individuals’ converse without using words. The communication which is nonverbal is symbolic, and, similar to the case of language, a lot of it is learned by the individual’s culture. Various signals are almost universal: crying regularly represents sadness and smiles frequently signify joy. Additional nonverbal symbols differ across the cultural backgrounds in their meaning. For instance, a thumbs-up symbol in the United States shows positive support, while in Australia and Russia, it signifies an offensive curse. Various gestures differ in meaning depending with the individual and the situation. A symbol of waving the hand can represent numerous things, considering for whom it is done and how it’s done. It may signify â€Å"no thank you,† â€Å"hello,† or â€Å"I’m royalty,† or â€Å"goodbye.† Winks express a range of messages, comprising of â€Å"Iâ€⠄¢m only kidding,† or â€Å"I’m attracted to you,† Or â€Å"We have a secret.† From a distance, an individual can comprehend the emotional idea of two individuals in conversation just through examining their facial expressions and body language. Folded arms and Furrowed brows signify a serious topic, perhaps a disagreement. Smiles, with arms open and heads lifted, imply a cheerful, friendly conversation (Durkheim, 2003, p. 41). Case study two                      Even though language is possibly the most apparent system of symbols that used in communication, numerous things we do express a symbolic meaning. For instance, of the way individuals dress and what it signifies to other individuals. The manner in which a person dress symbolically communicates to other people if that individual care about academics or if he or she is a fan of their schools football group, or it might converse that the individual is a fan of punk music or has adopted an anarchist philosophy. In various urban settings, the symbolic meaning of individuals clothes can signify gang connection. Other gang associates use these symbolic sartorial signs to identify allies or enemies. Anthropologists argues that, through their evolution course, individuals evolved a universal individual capacity to categorize experiences, as well as encoding and communicating them symbolically, like with language which is written. Due to the fact that symboli c systems were learned as well as being taught, they started developing independently of the biological evolution. Since this capacity for social learning and symbolic thinking is a human evolution product confuses older arguments regarding nurture versus nature. This view of culture shows that individuals who live away from each other begin develops distinct cultures. Basics of different cultures, but, can spread easily from one group of individuals to another. Belief that culture is coded symbolically and can, consequently, can be taught from one individual to another, meaning that cultures can change even if they are bounded. Culture is dynamic can be learned and taught, which makes it a rapid adaption form potentially to variations in the physical conditions. Anthropologists usually view culture both as supplement and product of the biological evolution; culture can be perceived as the core means of human version to the world which is natural (Middleton, 2002, p.16). The above view of culture as symbolic system with the adaptive functions varying from one place to another, made the anthropologists to conceive of various cultures as described through different structures or patterns of continuing conventional meaning sets. These meanings took solid form in diversity of artifacts like rituals and myths, tools, well as the planning of villages and the design of housing. Anthropologists differentiate between symbolic culture and material culture, not only since each signifies distinct types of human activity, however also because they comprise of different forms of data that necessitate dissimilar methodologies to study. The culture sociology relates to culture since it is evident in the society: the ways of acting, the ways of thinking and the material objects that collectively shape the individual’s way of life. In regard to Max Weber, the symbols are very essential features of culture: individuals employ symbols to convey their spirituality as well as the spiritual side of actual events, and perfect interests are obtained from the symbols (Smith, 2001, p.21-24). In accordance with the sociologists, symbols composes one of the five essential basics of culture, the others being norms, values, language and beliefs. Symbolic anthropology perceives culture as independent system of meaning decoded through interpreting the key rituals and symbols (Werness, 2000, p.37). In conclusion, it is evident that culture is as set of symbolic classifications, referred to as a group of symbols which can prearranged into a paradigmatic set, frequently hierarchical. These systems of classifications show a world view or tribal order. Languages are constituted of the systems of classifications like grammars. Grammars classify number, person and time. Cultures consist of unconscious classifications which include relatives, plants, colors and animals. References Browne, R. B., Fishwick, M. W., Browne, K. O. (1990). Dominant symbols in popular culture. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. Durkheim, E. (2003). Emile Durkheim sociologist of modernity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub..Hoijer, H. (1954). Language in culture: conference on the interrelations of language and other aspects of culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Middleton, J. (2002). Culture. Oxford, U.K.: Capstone Pub..Smith, P. (2001). Cultural theory: cn introduction. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell :. Werness, H. B. (2000). The Continuum encyclopedia of native art: worldview, symbolism, and culture in Africa, Oceania, and native North America. New York: Continuum. Source document

July’s People by Nadine Gordimer Essays -- Julys People Nadine Gordim

"July’s People" by Nadine Gordimer In July’s People, Nadine Gordimer gives a very detailed and knowledgeable explanation of the political turmoil within South Africa. By expressing the emotions of a family involved in the deteriorating situation and the misunderstandings between blacks and whites, she adds a very personal and emotional touch, which allows the reader to understand the true horror and terror these people experienced. Gordimer writes of how the Smales family reacts, survives, and adjusts to this life altering experience. She makes obvious throughout the book that prejudice plays a major role in uncovering the reactions of Bamford and Maureen Smales. The Smales were a suburban, upper middle class, white family living in Southern Africa until political turmoil and war forced them to flee from their home and lives. Rebel black armies in Soweto and other areas of Southern Africa revolted against the government and the minority white race, attacking radio and television stations and burning the homes of whites. The Smales needed to get out quickly. Their servant July, whom they had always treated well and had a very uncommon relationship with, offered to guide the family to his village. The Smales, having no other options, accepted July’s offer and ran in haste and confusion to the dearth village. They knew little of the drastic adjustments they would have to make in order to survive in July’s rustic village. These adjustments would soon threaten their relationships with one another and their family’s structure. The three Smales children, Victor, Royce and Gina, had not experienced, and therefore had not expected to live a life of luxury amongst people of their â€Å"own† kind. This innocence contributes greatly to the rate and comfort in which they adjust to living in July’s village. Bam and Maureen may not have felt prejudice towards the black race, but were certainly prejudice about the lifestyle in which they must now live, a lifestyle completely stripped of any and all luxuries they once enjoyed. All of the family members, facing a new way of life, adjust to their situation in radically different ways. Each one drifts in their own direction in search of comfort and acceptance throughout their experiences living amongst July’s people. The first adjustment the Smales family had to make was the realization that they no longer had all of ... ...and towards the sound of the helicopter, towards the hope of renewal. Because of Maureen’s flight from the village and from any responsibilities she once had, Bam must now become the mother figure of the family, nurturing his children and taking on what was once her role. July’s People is a story of the reactions, adaptations, and survival of Bamford and Maureen Smales to the life they have found in a black village after being thrown from their middle-class white neighborhood. Bam’s adjustment to their new life in the village was much better than Maureen’s because he handled the situation rationally by attempting to become a part of the community without letting his emotions get the best of him. Maureen, on the other hand, could not adjust to the situation and went almost completely insane because she could not accept a life without racial and gender structures. This alteration in her lifestyle was completely unbearable and she couldn’t survive without the power, control, and luxuries she once had. As a result of the radically different reactions and adaptations of Bam and Maureen to the life in July’s village, their relationship with one another was completely disintegrated.

Pushed Out and Forgotten †The Batwa Essay

Born in the United States, I grew up believing that the children who lived next door or the boy who sat across from me in class had it all. Even as an adult, there are bits of me that occasionally envy the family with the perceived â€Å"perfect life;† church every Sunday, home office with a big window, stain-less carpets, and children with perfect hair. But, I know better. Life in the United States is something I take for granted. I knew this and needed to remind myself just how truly grateful I should be for the life I live in the great states. How do I do this? What do I need to see in order to really understand life outside America? I needed to leave my country and visit a place that has many struggles; where people live humbly. What I didn’t realize was that I would leave the country I chose to visit, wanting to go back and make a difference. Rwanda is rich with many things; culture, diversity, and land. Rwanda has also perfected the art of discrimination. When my plane landed, I could not have grabbed my luggage and left the airport more quickly. I was excited for what the change in culture would bring me. What I would take home to teach my own family and friends. Some were excited to see me and others were less than thrilled to see me traipsing my way through their lands. I did what I could to respect the people and their cultures, as I did my research before coming to Rwanda. The population there is made up of mostly Hutu; traditional farmers. The rest of the population, mostly consist of Tutsi (or warrior people) and the Batwa. Though I would have enjoyed getting to know all the different people and ethnicities of Rwanda, I spent most of my time with the Batwa (Whitelaw, 2007). The history of the Batwa is something that I came to hold close while traveling with some who are conflicted with the fear of the past and the uncertainty of their future. The Batwa were former Central Africa residents  who lived their lives hunting and gathering in the rain forests. Though the lives they lived were not ideal for all, they were happy. But as time went, so was the expectation that they left their homes in order for the rainforest to be used for forestry and conservation. You may say, â€Å"So, were they compensated for the land they had to give up?† Well, no. The Batwa were physically removed from their homes and their land and were never given a red cent to live elsewhere. Kicked out of home, with no money, no good explanation, and expected to build a life in an area unfamiliar to most. The Batwa had no idea what this was going to do to their lives. They knew they did not want to leave but because of their naà ¯ve understanding of the modern world, they would face some struggle ahead. This was a disaster in the making. It didn’t help that many of people, already living in the areas the Batwa were forced to move, did not accept them as people. They were and continue to be discriminated against. The Batwa live in poverty in what is supposed to be a more modern society than what they were founded on. Yet, the population continues to deteriorate. How is this possible? It is possible because they have no land to live on, they eat the farming scraps left after a harvest, they are shunned from the education system because of illiteracy and a lack of money, they are allowed to vote but not allowed to be part of government, and they find it almost impossible to find a job that can support their needs because of discrimination and lack of education (New African, 2010). The Batwa’s situation sounded eerily familiar to me. I equated their situation to the Native American’s situation when the Europeans came to America. Pushed out of their land and forced to live a different way of life in a place that was â€Å"approved† by the rest of the people. I can imagine that the way the Batwa live is similar to the way the Native American’s are forced to live. The difference is that the Native Americans feel forced by lack of education of the rest of Americans, where the Batwa’s are forced because they are still not accepted in today’s Rwandan society. Another big difference I see is that the Batwa are a part of Africa and are being discriminated by their people. Yes, they are a different ethnicity and would live their lives differently, if not forced into another. But, they are still from the same country. After spending time with this  amazing group of people, I have realized that I could not accurately explain the difference between ethnicity and race. Six months ago, I lumped those two terms together. Though they have similarities, they are different. I am a Caucasian, but that doesn’t mean it is easy to assume my ethnicity. My great friend is Caucasian, but that doesn’t mean her and I have the same ethnicity. I was born and raised in a small town out of Minnesota and she was raised in Ireland. The two terms are different. Her family traditions around the holidays are different than mine. Really understanding the differences between race in Rwanda and their ethnicities was important when trying to understand why there is and was so much discrimination. Though the race may be nearly the same, each group of people lived completely different lives. The Batwa’s lived in a rainforest and Hutu’s ran farms in a more modern lifestyle. Even the way each culture enjoys dancing is either accepted or it is not. The Batwa were forced to study Christianity, eat the foods of the modern people, and even had to learn how to wear clothing differently. The way the Batwa chose to live their lives in the rainforest would not be acceptable in the eyes of the rest of Rwanda. Ethnicity and race are different and this is why discrimination exists in Rwanda (New African, 2012). * Learning the history of how the Batwa live, by choice or not, begged the question, â€Å"what has this done to them as a people?† The discrimination of the Batwa and other small groups of people, have made it difficult for them to thrive much less survive. They impact they have on the government is nil, so seeing a dramatic change through government representation is unlikely. There are groups such as the Organization of Rwandan Potters (COPORWA) who consider the Batwa and their situations. The Batwa are value their culture and ways of life, but have lost touch because of highly encouraged religions and lack of acceptance of their culture. The Batwa do and will continue to struggle to be recognized as a minority group who needs help (Ingelaere, B., 2010). * The Batwa have lost their land, they are losing their culture, the people are not surviving, and the idea of maintaining hope is slowly slipping away. Spending time with my new found friends made me want to bring them all home with me. But, as I have learned, moving people from their homes and lives can create more problems than intended. Though, I would see to it that they were treated with the respect they deserve, it does not fix the bigger problem. The  human race has much to learn about what the true meaning of love, life, and respect is. Unfortunately, discrimination and a lack of understanding is a natural course of nature. There are some things out of our control and others in which we can only influence. If I could change anything about my visit to Rwanda, it would have been to spend more time there to understand more about why the other cultures see the Batwa the way they do. Though the discrimination against the Batwa is moving at a snail’s pace in the right direction, at least it is moving that way. Until then, I send my prayers and well wishes to the Batwa people. I would also challenge those of you reading my article to take some time to travel to a place similar to Rwanda to learn about another culture; what it has to offer is far more than money can buy. * References: Batwa A people under threat. (2010). New African, (497), 38. Ingelaere, B. (2010). Peasants, power and ethnicity: A bottom-up perspective on Rwanda’s political transition. African Affairs, 109(435), 273-292. Whitelaw, Kevin. (2007). Rwanda Reborn. U.S. News & World Report, 00415537, Vol. 142, Issue 14

Benefits of Playing Team Sports

Thesis OUTLINE Benefits of playing team sports: 1. Traveling 2. Working Together 3. Learning New Techniques 4. School Scholarship THE FIRST THESIS We say that playing team sports are something good for us to keep us the youth of Belize doing the positive things in life. Belize has a population of 333,200 persons and of that amount 232,700 are of under the age of 35 where at the age of 35 you are still call a youth. This represents approximately 70%. Some benefits of playing team sports are by Traveling around the world, working together as one, Learning New Techniques and to be able to get a Scholarship to go to any school of their choice.So do you think that playing team sports is good for the youths of Belize? PARAGRAPHS Paragraph one will be talking about how sports can make you travel around the world and making new friends. Paragraph two is talking about the youths working together as one to be a good sports team. Paragraph three will be telling you about how team sports can mak e you learn new techniques. Paragraph four tells you about getting a school scholarship to go to any school of our choice. REWRITE ThesisBelize has a population of 333,200 persons and of that amount 232,700 are under the age of 35 where at the age of 35 you are still call a youth. This represents approximately 70%. We say that playing team sports are something good for us to keep us the youth of Belize doing the positive things in life. Some benefits of playing team sports are by Traveling around the world, working together as one, Learning New Techniques and to be able to get a Scholarship to go to any school of their choice. So do you think that playing team sports is good for the youths of Belize? OLD THESISWe say that playing team sports are something good for us to keep us the youth of Belize doing the positive things in life. Belize has a population of 333,200 persons and of that amount 232,700 are of under the age of 35 where at the age of 35 you are still call a youth. This represents approximately 70%. Some benefits of playing team sports are by Traveling around the world, working together as one, Learning New Techniques and to be able to get a Scholarship to go to any school of their choice. So do you think that playing team sports is good for the youths of Belize?

The Murder of Somer Thompson and Capture of Her Killer

The Murder of Somer Thompson and Capture of Her Killer On October 18, 2009, 7-year-old Somer Thompson was walking home from her Orange Park, Florida school with her twin brother and 10-year-old sister when she disappeared. Her body was found two days later 50 miles away in a landfill in Georgia. Florida Searches for Somer Thompson Somer Thompson was a mere 4-foot, 5-inches tall and weighed 65 pounds on the day that she went missing. Her hair was in a ponytail, tied with a red bow and she was carrying her favorite purple Hannah Montana backpack and a lunchbox. She was walking with her siblings and friends, but then when some in the group got into an argument, she separated from them and walked ahead by herself. It would be the last time Somer Thompson was seen alive. Investigator immediately suspected foul play and issued an Amber Alert. Police interviewed more than 160 registered sex offenders who lived within a five-mile radius of where Somer disappeared.   Clay County Sheriff Sgt. Dan Mahla called the investigation an all-out search. Working all night, the search included canine units, mounted police, dive teams, and helicopters with heat-sensing technology, Mahla said. Somer Thompsons Body Is Found On October 21, 2009, a childs body was found in a landfill in Folkston, Georgia, just across the Florida state line near where Somer Thompson vanished. Searchers found the body of a young white child at the landfill after sorting through more than 100 tons of garbage. They were not acting on a tip. They followed garbage trucks working Thompsons neighborhood to the site. Clay County Sheriff Rick Beseler said it was a standard operating procedure in a missing person case for police to begin following garbage trucks and search nearby landfills. Pornographer Arrested in Somer Thompson Case A Florida man, who was being held on child pornography charges in Mississippi, was charged with the murder of Somer Thompson. Jarred Mitchell Harrell, 24, faced multiple charges in connection with the murder. Harrell has been in custody in Mississippi since February 11 and was extradited to Florida. Harrell faced a possible death sentence for charges of premeditated murder, sexual battery of a child under 12 and lewd and lascivious battery, according to court records. But Harrell was arrested in Meridian, Mississippi on a Florida warrant on more than 50 charges related to the sexual assault of another girl which he allegedly videotaped. He entered a not guilty plea to the charges. Press reports said at the time of Somers disappearance, Harrell was living with his parents in a house that was on her route to and from school. Harrell ultimately faced three trials: one for the molestation of the 3-year-old, one for the murder of Somer Thompson and another for child pornography.   Somer Thompsons Killer Gets Plea Deal Harrell avoided the death penalty by accepting a plea deal. He was sentenced to life without the possibility of parole after agreeing to drop his right to appeal the sentence later. Somers family members agreed to the plea deal, prosecutors said. After entering his guilty plea, Harrell listened to several victim impact statements, including one from Somers twin brother Samuel. You know you did this, and now youre going to jail, Samuel Thompson told Harrell. Somers mother, Diena Thompson, who attended every court hearing in the case, told Harrell he would never find peace. No Peace in the Afterlife Your punishment does absolutely not fit your crime, she said. Remember now, there is no safe place for you. You do not have an impenetrable cell. There will be no peace in the afterlife. Court papers show that on Oct. 19, 2009, Harrell lured Somer into the Orange Park, Florida house where he was living with his mother on the route on which she walked from school. There he sexually assaulted her, killed her and put her body in the garbage. Harrell pleaded to first-degree murder, kidnapping and sexual battery in the Somer Thompson case. But he also pleaded to possession of child pornography and several other sexual-related charges in connection with an unrelated case involving a 3-year-old. The child was a relative of Harrells, according to court records. House Where Somer Died Is Destroyed On Feb. 12, 2015, Orange Park firefighters burned to the ground the house where Somer Thompson was killed. The Somer Thompson Foundation purchased the property and it was used for a live training exercise after the purchase. Burn, baby, burn, said Somers mother, Diena Thompson, after she tossed a flare inside the brick home while several hundred bystanders looked on. The home, owned by Harrells mother, became vacant after his arrest and ended up in foreclosure when the foundation bought it and offered it to the Orange Park Fire Department for a training exercise. Thompson said burning the house brought her family relief. I get to burn their house down, Thompson said. Im the big bad wolf this time knocking down your door, not the other way around. Its really nice to know that Im not ever going to have to drive in this neighborhood again and see this piece of trash. She said she hoped the property will be turned into something positive for the community one day.

Landslides essays

Landslides essays Causing $1-2 billion in damages and more than 25 deaths per year, landslides are a major geologic hazard, caused by earthquakes and floods. Although, landslides are generally not as exciting or costly as earthquakes, major floods, tropical storms, and other natural disasters, they occur in more expanded places and may cause more property damage than any other geologic hazards. A wide variety of ground movements, such as rock falls, slope failure, and shallow debris flows can classify landslides. When a portion of a hill slope cannot support its own weight a landslide will occur. When rainfall or some other water source increases the water content of the slope the weakness is irritated, reducing the strength of the materials. Although gravity acting upon an increased slope is the main reason for a landslide, there are other elements that contribute to its cause. Loud sounds that occur during an earthquake also cause landslides. Erosion caused by rivers, glaciers, or ocean waves create oversteepened slopes. Heavy rains and melting snow weaken rock and soil slopes. Furthermore, vibrations from machinery, traffic, and even thunder may trigger failure of weak slopes. Excess water can run through slope material and can cause a debris flow or mud flow. The rock and mud left over after a landslide may pick up anything in its path, such as trees, hous es, and cars, causing bridges and tributaries to become blocked which causes flooding throughout its path. Even though, the natural cause of most landslides is unable to be stopped, geologic investigations, good engineering practices and effective enforcement of land-use management regulations can cut back landslide danger. Landslides effect every state in the United States territory. The Appalachian Mountains, the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coastal Ranges and few parts of Alaska and Hawaii have intense landslide problems. USGS marine scientists have recently identified...

Juan Sebastián Elcano, Ferdinand Magellans Replacement

Juan Sebastin Elcano, Ferdinand Magellan's Replacement Juan Sebastin Elcano (1487–August 4, 1526) was a Spanish (Basque) sailor, navigator, and explorer best remembered for leading the second half of the first round-the-world navigation, having taken over after the death of Ferdinand Magellan. Upon his return to Spain, the King presented him with a coat of arms that contained a globe and the phrase: â€Å"You Went Around Me First.† Fast Facts: Juan Sebastian Elcano Known For: Leading the second half of Ferdinand Magellans first round-the-world navigation after Magellan diedBorn: 1487 in Guetaria, a fishing village in Gipuzkoa, SpainParents: Domingo Sebastian de Elcano and Dona Catalina del PuertoDied: August 4, 1526 at sea (Pacific Ocean)Spouse: NoneChildren: A son Domingo del Cano by Mari Hernandez de Hernialde and an unnamed daughter by Maria de Vidaurreta of Valladolid Early Life Juan Sebastin Elcano (in Basque; the Spanish spelling of his name is written as del Cano) was born in 1487 in Guetaria, a fishing village in the Guipuzcoa province of Spain. He was the eldest of nine children of Domingo Sebastian de Elcano and Dona Catalina del Puerto. He was related to the Gaiza de Arzaus and Ibarrola families, who held important positions in the Casa de Contratacion in Seville, the Spanish crowns agency for the Spanish empire, a thin but later useful family connection. Elcano and his brothers became seafarers, learning navigation by ferrying contraband goods to French ports. He was an adventurer, fighting with the Spanish Army in Algiers and Italy before settling down as captain/owner of a merchant ship. As a young man, however, he led a prodigal and wayward life and often had more debts than money to pay them. Italian companies demanded that he surrender his ship to cover his debts, but he later found he had broken Spanish law by doing so and had to ask the king for a pardon. Young King Charles V agreed, but on the condition that the skilled sailor and navigator (with good connections) serve with an expedition the king was funding: the search for a new route to the Spice Islands, led by Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan. The Magellan Expedition Elcano was given the position of ship’s master on board the Concepcià ³n, one of five ships making up the fleet. Magellan believed that the globe was smaller than it actually is and that a shortcut to the Spice Islands (now known as the Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia) was possible by going through the New World. Spices such as cinnamon and cloves were immensely valuable in Europe at the time and a shorter route would be worth a fortune to whoever found it. The fleet set sail in September 1519 and made its way to Brazil, avoiding Portuguese settlements due to hostilities between the Spanish and Portuguese. As the fleet made its way south along the coast of South America looking for a passage west, Magellan decided to call a halt in the sheltered bay of San Julin because he feared continuing on in bad weather. Left idle, the men began to talk of mutiny and returning to Spain. Elcano was a willing participant and had by then assumed command of the ship San Antonio. At one point, Magellan ordered his flagship to fire on the San Antonio. In the end, Magellan put down the mutiny and had many of the leaders killed or marooned. Elcano and others were pardoned, but not until after a period of forced labor on the mainland. To the Pacific Around this time, Magellan lost two ships: the San Antonio returned to Spain (without permission) and the Santiago sank, although all of the sailors were rescued. By this time, Elcano was captain of the Concepcià ³n, a decision by Magellan that probably had much to do with the fact that the other experienced ships captains had been executed or marooned after the mutiny or had gone back to Spain with the San Antonio. In October–November 1520, the fleet explored the islands and waterways at the southern tip of South America, eventually finding a passage through what is known today as the Strait of Magellan. According to Magellan’s calculations, the Spice Islands should have only been a few days of sailing away. He was badly mistaken: his ships took four months to cross the South Pacific. Conditions were miserable on board and several men died before the fleet reached Guam and the Marianas Islands and were able to resupply. Continuing westward, they reached the present-day Philippines in early 1521. Magellan found he could communicate with the natives through one of his men, who spoke Malay: they had reached the eastern edge of the world known to Europe. Death of Magellan In the Philippines, Magellan befriended the King of Zzubu, who was eventually baptized with the name of â€Å"Don Carlos.† Unfortunately, Don Carlos convinced Magellan to attack a rival chieftain for him, and Magellan was one of several Europeans killed in the ensuing battle. Magellan was succeeded by Duarte Barbosa and Juan Serrao, but both were treacherously killed by â€Å"Don Carlos† within a few days. Elcano was now second in command of the Victoria, under Juan Carvalho. Low on men, they decided to scuttle the Concepcià ³n and head back to Spain in the two remaining ships: the Trinidad and the Victoria. Return to Spain Heading across the Indian Ocean, the two ships made a stop in Borneo before finding themselves at the Spice Islands, their original goal. Packed with valuable spices, the ships set out again. About this time, Elcano replaced Carvalho as captain of the Victoria. The Trinidad soon had to return to the Spice Islands, however, as it was leaking badly and eventually sank. Many of the Trinidad’s sailors were captured by the Portuguese, although a handful managed to find their way to India and from there back to Spain. The Victoria sailed on cautiously, as they had gotten word that a Portuguese fleet was looking for them. Miraculously evading the Portuguese, Elcano sailed the Victoria back into Spain on September 6, 1522. By then, the ship was crewed by only 22 men: 18 European survivors of the voyage and four Asians they had picked up en route. The rest had died, deserted or, in some cases, been left behind as unworthy of sharing in the spoils of the rich cargo of spices. The King of Spain received Elcano and granted him a coat of arms bearing a globe and the Latin phrase Primus circumdedisti me, or â€Å"You Went Around Me First.† Death and Legacy In 1525, Elcano was picked to be the chief navigator for a new expedition led by the Spanish nobleman Garcà ­a Jofre de Loaà ­sa, who intended to retrace Magellan’s route and establish a permanent colony in the Spice Islands. The expedition was a fiasco: of seven ships, only one made it to the Spice Islands, and most of the leaders, including Elcano, perished of malnutrition during the arduous Pacific crossing. Elcano wrote a last will and testament, leaving money to his two illegitimate children and their mothers back in Spain, and died on August 4, 1526. Because of his elevation to noble status upon his return from the Magellan expedition, Elcano’s descendants continued to hold the title of Marquis for some time after his death. As for Elcano himself, he has unfortunately been mostly forgotten by history, as Magellan still gets all the credit for the first circumnavigation of the globe. Elcano, although well-known to historians of the Age of Exploration (or Age of Discovery), is little more than a trivia question to most, although there is a statue of him in his hometown of Getaria, Spain and the Spanish Navy once named a ship after him. Sources Fernandez de Navarrete, Eustaquio. Historia De Juan Sebastian Del Cano. Nicholas de Soraluce y Zubizarreta, 1872. Mariciano, R. De Borja. Basques in the Philippines. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2005. Sebastian del Cano, Juan. Original of the Testament of Juan Sebastian Del Cano Made on Board the Ship, Victoria, One of the Ships of Comendador Garcia De Loaysa on Its Way to the South Sea. The Philippines under Spain; a Compilation and Translation of Original Documents. Book 1 (1518-1565): The Voyages of Discovery. Eds. Benitez Licuanan, Virginia and Josà © Llavador Mira. Manila: National Trust for Historical and Cultural Preservation of the Philippines, 1526 (1990). Thomas, Hugh. Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan. 1st edition, Random House, June 1, 2004.

Information systems security management Research Paper

Information systems security management - Research Paper Example In 1915, there were 250 automobile manufactures in the United State that were utilizing information technology on large bases. By the 1994, this figure had increased up till 500 automobiles. In the field of telecommunication, around 2000 radio stations across the United States were found (Laudon, 2011). In 1925, these radio stations were broadcasting to local neighborhoods and run by non-professionals. By the year 1990, only 500 independent stations were functioning. Therefore, it is clear that the e-commerce will follow the same pattern along with some noticeable difference that is discussed further (Laudon, 2011). The development in the field of e-commerce has been increased significantly, but it is also not obvious that this field will tend to grow on this rate forever. Moreover, its growth will be limited in future as it is confronting its own fundamental limitations. For example, the B2C e-commerce is still a small part around 3% of the net retail market. In fact, in 2008, all t he B2C e-commerce will approximately equal to the annual revenue under recent projections. This research includes Wal-Mart, which is the world’s largest and most effective retailer. On the contrary, with the only 3% of the entire retail sales, it is now introducing online methods (Laudon, 2011). Early Years of E-Commerce E-Commerce Today Technology-driven Business-driven Revenue growth emphasis Earnings and profits emphasis Venture capital financing Traditional financing Ungoverned Stronger regulation and governance Entrepreneurial Large traditional firms Disintermediation Strengthening intermediaries Perfect markets Imperfect markets, brands, and network effects Pure online strategies Integrated, multi-channel bricks-and-clicks strategies First mover advantages Strategic follower strength; complimentary assets Figure 1.1 1.1 Emphasizing Privacy One more study shows that online companies emphasize and focus more on online privacy policy rather than any other aspect. Even onli ne security is considered as the second option. Moreover, the study also concluded that online customers are more worried about their privacy rather than online threats as they are considered to be in control. In addition, the study also demonstrated a comparison between the two decades, i.e. 1999-2001 and 2005-2007, which highlighted the factors that are mentioned previously (Parayitam, Desai, & Desai, 2008). 1.2 Focusing on Customer Demands However, study concluded one interesting factor, i.e. the rankings and ratings of policies created for the Internet continues to focus on demands of the web users. Moreover, consumer privacy continues to be on top in both the decades (Parayitam, Desai, & Desai, 2008). The amplified awareness by the contributors, i.e. legislators and advocates, shows that the interest level is comparatively high. 2 Technology Infrastructure E-commerce is also described as the development and growth of digital computing, and communications technology is at the co re of modern technology of global digital economy. In order to understand the future of the digital e-commerce, we need to understand the technological basics on which it is dependent. The e-commerce is, basically, a technological motivated phenomenon that depends on a cloud of information technologies. Moreover, the fundamental ideas from computer science have developed this over for a

Improving Communication - The China Context Essay

Improving Communication - The China Context - Essay Example As the report declares in today’s fast paced environment and the age of electronic communication, messages sent, take on a whole new meaning by the time they reach the recipient. This gets aggravated even further when messages are relayed between differing cultures and social settings. Globalization after all, has had a profound impact on the business world of the 21st century. It is no longer possible for countries to conduct their businesses in isolation. This paper stresses that a global code of general ethics and basic business communication is increasingly being accepted by all countries, regardless of the diversity of their cultures. In this way, the principles of democracy in business have become applicable to all countries from the West to the East of the world. Communication theories like the conduit metaphor and the narrative paradigm, provide a useful insight into what goes on in an ineffective communication and how one can make it more transparent. The theory assumes that successful communication has occurred when the receiver objectively interprets the sender’s intention and meaning behind the information sent. This implies that information that is put into the right words will be easily communicable. Any extraneous information that follows the correct message can thus be eliminated as unwanted â€Å"noise†. The idea of objective interpretation does not hold ground. Discussed below are some situations that thw art the idea of objective interpretation.

Israeli perception on the six day war and the security dilemma Research Paper

Israeli perception on the six day war and the security dilemma - Research Paper Example The Israeli were angered by the actions of the Arab Nations and the lack of action from the United States and UNEF. Israeli decided to seek a peaceful agreement from the U.S. and UNEF but failed to reach an agreement, this made the Israeli’s to start war with the Arab countries, and in the end Israeli emerged victorious over these countries. Israeli`s Defense Forces had no reason to go to war but were forced by circumstances to fight, for the protection of its people, and securing security for its people. Key words: Israeli, Six Day War, Security, Dilemma, Perception, Israel, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Arab, U.S., Israeli Defense Force, Army, National Security, Doctrine, Forces, Quality, Quantity, Resources, Threat The Six Day War was a war between five Arab neighbors namely; Syria, Egypt, Jordan, Israeli and her neighbors, in which Israeli captured the most part of Arab territory. This war broke out on 5 June, 1967 and ended on 10 June 1967, following a three week tension, when th e Israelites learned that Egypt had deployed a large army in Sinai Peninsula. The cause of the Six Day War was as a result of increased tension between Israel and its Arab neighbors in the mid 1960`s. Israeli ruling to divert the waters of River Jordan to Negev Desert frustrated the Arabs, who wanted the river to flow to Lake Galilee. Syria had begun to divert the waters but this made Israel bomb Syria in the years 1965 and 1966. Egypt played a big role in the Six Day War; this was because of the: blockade of the Gulf of Aqaba, the Fatah and PLO raid on Israel, the creation of an independent Israel, Israel decision to strike first in 1967, and expulsion of UN forces from Egypt (Rea and Wright, 1997). Historians sited that the reason for Israel attack was because of the poor economic conditions it was experiencing at the time. They explained that a war would distract people`s minds from unemployment and low development and this would bring foreign currency, to boost the economy (â₠¬Å"Causes of the War,† n.d.). The cold war tension motivated and exploited the soviets, to take advantage of the destabilized region, and provide them with military and economic assistance, in order to outsmart Jordan and Iraq, as it increased threats on Israeli By the end of the war, Israeli had captured triple the size of the area controlled. Israeli unified Jerusalem, Sinai, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip and West Bank. Israeli hope was to have peaceful negotiations with the Arabs states (Bard, 2012). Israelis perspective on the events that led to the Six Day War was influenced by views of itself in the region and in the international community during that time. Israeli thought its existence was been threatened, before the war broke out, leaders were also concerned about how Israel would survive. This made Israel to pay back the continued Arab hostility and specific attacks. They thought that this would make the Arab leaders cease to attack Israel and caution them to control the ir acts against Israeli. Many unfriendly superpowers gave Arab countries aid to attack Israeli, and this angered them because of their hostility and unfriendly ways. The main reasons for Israeli attacks were the severe Arab threats, and the role of the United States in a threat that was serious. On May 23, President Nasser of Egypt announced the blockage of strait of Tiran, this changed Israeli`s perception. The question many asked was, what is the United States doing about this decision, and was is

Education in Saudi Arabia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Education in Saudi Arabia - Research Paper Example As the discussion stresses  after the country was founded in 1932, the education system was not easily accessible and was limited by individual teaching practices at religious schools, mosques, and private homes. The schools were initially focused on teaching Islamic law, recitation of Quran included with basic writing and reading skills. By the end of the century, there were prominent educational reforms in the Ottoman provinces of Hijaz and Al-Ahsa, leading to the beginning of the ‘modern education’. In 1954, the Ministry of Education was established and the first non-wholly religious university, the King Saud University, was opened in 1957. In 1958, a uniform educational system was provided, which consisted of â€Å"a 6-year elementary, a 3-year intermediate and a 3-year secondary cycle with a separate higher education program†.This essay highlights  the goal of the Saudi education system is to ensure that education is provided in a well-organized and effic ient way to meet the religious, social, and economic needs of the nation, as well as to minimize the illiteracy rates within the community. The general objectives of education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are â€Å"to provide the students with the values, teachings and ideals of Islam; to equip them with various skills and knowledge; to develop their conduct in constructive directions; and to develop the society economically and culturally†.

Organizational Behavior Final Project Research Paper

Organizational Behavior Final Project - Research Paper Example Organization culture deals with the code of work, belief and skills perspective in the organization and defines how things are done in the organization (Baker 2). In general, organizational culture is created to encourage the collective role by all the employees to meet set objectives and goals (Madu1). The leadership style used dictates the type of organizational culture in an organization. For a leader to develop a proper organizational culture, they first impose their, standards, expectations, beliefs and standards to the other employees to be applied in the organization. As leadership ideas become shared, and embedded in the organizations operations, the employees develop skills signals and work ethics as required. Proper culture can develop into deep into the organization, and if it is fully integrated, can lead to business success. This culture takes two levels of existence, and the first level deals with organizational behavior and artifacts. This relates to behavior that can be physically observed in the organization including the layout of organization environment, dressing code and the general behavior of people. The second level of organizational culture involves expressing the values of the organization that are not physically observable, but are appear in the general operations of the organization. For instance, the way the organizations related to the products and customers also is reflected by the organizational culture. Organizations can set their standards to become customer oriented in the operations, and through this, products and services are be tailored to meet the specific needs of customers (Madu 3). Organizational cultures can be evaluated on whether or not they are effective at a time when the organization is facing a crisis. If the culture is incapable of handling the crisis at that time, then the leadership needs to change their culture to handle it (Haworth 1). Furthermore, organizational culture plays a very important role in organi zations, and in many cases, it provides direction to the organization. This organizational culture provides employees with what is desired from them, and how they are to present themselves, or behave in the workplace environment. It also provides employees with a sense of communication in the organization, and in most cases it with a chain of command to be followed. It also provides a sense of order in the organization, and leadership together with the staff can be able to know how their roles and how they are to achieve this in organizations. Culture in an organization allows for strategic innovation of products and services, and shows, which methods organizations can follow; either product centered or market centered approaches. Organizational culture provides management with a means of managing the workforce in the organization, and helps set the roles and tasks for each member of the staff (Tharp 3). Organizational culture is very important in managing organizational change, whi ch may arise either internally or externally. This organizational change enables the management to gain competitive advantage from

Education in Saudi Arabia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Education in Saudi Arabia - Research Paper Example As the discussion stresses  after the country was founded in 1932, the education system was not easily accessible and was limited by individual teaching practices at religious schools, mosques, and private homes. The schools were initially focused on teaching Islamic law, recitation of Quran included with basic writing and reading skills. By the end of the century, there were prominent educational reforms in the Ottoman provinces of Hijaz and Al-Ahsa, leading to the beginning of the ‘modern education’. In 1954, the Ministry of Education was established and the first non-wholly religious university, the King Saud University, was opened in 1957. In 1958, a uniform educational system was provided, which consisted of â€Å"a 6-year elementary, a 3-year intermediate and a 3-year secondary cycle with a separate higher education program†.This essay highlights  the goal of the Saudi education system is to ensure that education is provided in a well-organized and effic ient way to meet the religious, social, and economic needs of the nation, as well as to minimize the illiteracy rates within the community. The general objectives of education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are â€Å"to provide the students with the values, teachings and ideals of Islam; to equip them with various skills and knowledge; to develop their conduct in constructive directions; and to develop the society economically and culturally†.

Inquiring Minds Want to Know - Now Case Coursework

Inquiring Minds Want to Know - Now Case - Coursework Example The other research question could be, should the company retain the reader services cards in it future advertisement services? Investigative questions: How does the current trend in the number of reader service card subscribers compare with the recent past? What are the alternative services being used by the clients and how can the alternative methods be implemented in Penton Media to enhance its advertising revenue returns? 2. Ethical issues relevant to this case study. The ethical principles of confidentiality, privacy and individual autonomy emerge as the most relevant issues in this case study. Since the company investigates individual customer behaviors and views, it is therefore, ethically obliged to ensure that its finding remain confidential and are not exposed to other people other than for the company’s use only. In this case, the company committed itself to respect the principles of confidentiality and privacy in handling the participants’ responses (Cooper & Schindler, 2010). On the other hand, the company must seek the consent of the participants before sharing its findings with the rest of the company stakeholders. The findings should remains anonymous from the point of collection to its analysis in which no identification should be given for responses provided. Researchers must present the research findings without any form of biasness or manipulation of the results to suite certain expectations. 3. Describe the sampling plan. Analyze its strengths and weaknesses? Researchers in this study applied the unrestrictive random sampling plan in which different sample were drawn from the company’s database of 1.7million subscribers. A small sample of 300 subscribers was then used for the mail survey pretest. Researchers are also used the stratified disproportionate random sampling to draw another sample of 4,000 participants including executives, managers, purchasing agents and engineers from the company’s database(Cooper & S chindler, 2010). Some weaknesses can identified with sampling plan including the possibility of locking out some participants that could provide important information about the problem faced by the company. The use of self-reporting questionnaires provides participants with the freedom to present their views although resulted in significant reduction of the targeted sample. The use of mail surveys in form of questionnaires made the collection data less costly and time consuming. 4. Describe the research design? The research design involved in this study was the multistage design in which different samples and different phenomena were studied in the same study. The study entailed the pretests and the main study. The first study established the views of subscribers through questionnaires and phone surveys, then a selected sample of 300 subscribers and finally a sample of 4000 participants selected from the company’s leadership (Cooper & Schindler, 2010). 5. Critique the survey used for the study The survey did not reflect the actual situation in the publication market segment because the sample was drawn from the company’s database comprising of its clients rather than obtain information about the market. Therefore, segmentation of the sample population limited the information obtained from the study. The study also had a significantly high error margin of +- 4% which raises issues of reliability and validity of the data obtained (Cooper & Schindle

Technical Developments Essay Example for Free

Technical Developments Essay With the increase in the success of record sales came the need to introduce methods to diminish manufacturing costs in order to increase profit margins. Nowhere was this need more prevalent than with the independent record companies in the industry for they had the most to gain let alone survive. After the demise of Germany, German technology made its way across the Atlantic to America. One of these technical break through was the ability to store audio information on magnetic tape. Magnetic tape was a process where Iron Oxide embedded on plastic tape could be magnetized by amplified electrical impulses for the purpose of recording and playing back audio information. It offered editing of performances, portability, and better audio quality and was significally cheaper than the existing technologies. In the USA a company that made Scotch tape called 3M improved the abilities of magnetic tape, allowing recording speeds of 30 ips to be brought down to 15 ips and 71/2 ips with little quality loss but significantly longer recording times. In 1948 Bell laboratories introduced the Transistor to America. Transistor technology could do everything the Vacuum tube at a reduced cost. It required less power, was smaller in size and more durable. Soon the recording studio became portable and could easily be torn down and set-up if the need arisen. Most importantly, the AM radio was created and could be found in the private confines of a teenagers bedroom. It might be hard to believe, but parents would warn their kids about the evils of listening to new music all by oneself. This new advent in technical breakthroughs sparked interest with the major players in the industry like CBS and RCA. Over at CBS the laboratories invented High Fidelity, a new method of improving the record. The Long-Playing record was invented that increased the number of grooves for the playing speed was lowered from 78 rpm to 33 rpm. Because the speed was lowered and the grooves now smaller, the smaller diamond stylus replaced the larger sapphire stylus. The new stylus needed to use lesser pressure allowing the LPs to last a lot longer. Over at RCA, engineers were developing similar technology. They invented a smaller sized record that revolved at 45 rpm. The size of the 45 and the fact that they only played one song worked very well for the jukebox owners. The 33-rpm LP worked well for playing records that offered more than one song and could sell for more money. With the new technical advances, records emerged as a relatively inexpensive medium compared to the overall production costs of Radio, film and Television, With this new trend, smaller independent record companies could compete with the larger companies and naturally they grew in stature and power. Records soon became the mainstay of radio and by 1952 record sales surpassed sheet music sales as a source of revenue in the music business. No longer was the jukebox the main resource for record promotion, radio with its new personalities would make sure of that. The main broadcasting format was AM amplitude modulation, even though FM frequency modulation had been around for a while. FM was in conflict with the introduction of TV for it existed in the VHF bandwidth that TV also shared, and had to take a back seat to AM even though its broadcasting quality was better. It was obvious to the broadcasting companies that the future lied in TV and radio would always be secondary. A compromise was made with Fm broadcasters and TV when TV allowed FM to operate on channel 1 on the TV station dial. It was later shifted to a bandwidth between 88-108 megacycles (between channels 6 and 7 where in now lives today. This proved to be devastating for FM broadcasters for not too many people were interested in buying an FM radio. In 1946 there were almost 7 million AM radios and less than 75,000 FM radios, and it would be a long time until TV was thoroughly entrenched that FM would start to emerge as a broadcaster for classical radio. With the development of TV came the fatal blow to network radio, for the large advertisers were much more interested in sponsoring TV programming than radio. But radio managed to survive via the Independent broadcasters that could rely on local advertisers for revenues, what we call today Retail verses the Corporate advertising of the major broadcasters. It is amazing to acknowledge the efforts and the luck of the independents in their pursuit of good music.

Effect of the Financial Crisis on Consumer Buying Behaviour

Effect of the Financial Crisis on Consumer Buying Behaviour ABSTRACT Consumer buying behaviour is a complex phenomenon, which is comprised of a bundle of decision-making processes, economic determinants and market stimuli. Consumer purchasing behaviour has been attracting the interest of a great number of academic and commercial parties for many years. The complexity of the processes with which consumer purchasing can be associated has made the phenomenon considerably difficult to be predicted and controlled. However, as consumers are the most essential source of revenue for business organisations, therefore their behaviour is of significant importance for achieving market survival and financial prosperity. This is the reason why the present dissertation is focused on researching and analysing the phenomenon in the present financial crisis. As the current crisis is already recognised to be having a major effect on many economic and social aspects of the United Kingdom, the researcher concentrates specifically on revealing the effects the present economic downturn has on the buying behaviour of consumers. The author is highly interested in revealing the disturbances that can be identified to occur and thus provide valuable insight to commercial and academic parties in the context of predicting and controlling consumer purchasing patterns. The dissertation is specifically focused on analysing the buyer behaviour changes from a marketing perspective. The author provides a number of suggestions, which were extracted from the conducted secondary and primary investigation. The developed propositions outline the various considerations companies should integrate in their marketing campaigns in order to perform successfully, despite the financial crisis and economic downturn. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Buying behaviour can be described as the set of attitudes that characterise the patterns of consumers choices. Buying behaviour is a phenomenon that varies depending on a wide range of factors, such as: demographics, income, social and cultural factors. Apart from the essential internal factors, which can be recognised as influential to buying behaviour, there are a number of situational contexts that can be suggested to affect consumer choices. In this respect it can be proposed that consumer behaviour is a combination of customers buying consciousness and external incentives which are likely to result in behaviour remodelling (Dawson et al., 2006). This is why researchers in the field of consumer buying patterns conclude that it is derivative of function that encompasses economic principles and marketing stimuli (Hansen, 2006). As buying behaviour is a key factor for companies profitability, it is a phenomenon that has been attracting the attention of researchers for many years. One of the fields most significantly interested in consumer choice, is the field of marketing (Kotler, 2000). Marketing is the discipline focused on extracting knowledge on consumers characteristics to enable companies to respond to customers expectations and facilitate organisations in providing high quality customer service (Groucutt et al., 2004). This is why it can be suggested that the context of the present dissertation could be of significant importance for marketing researchers and professionals. As the present project aims to analyse the financial crisis effects on consumer behaviour it can be suggested that the in depth scrutiny which the current examination would establish could transform into a valuable source of marketing direction. In other words, the present dissertation is likely to transform into a valuable source of marketing comprehensiveness as it would reveal knowledge on the likely changes in buying behaviour which the current financial and economic downturn is causing and thus provide commercial organisations with a piece of research that could stimulate greater appropriateness and integrity in companies business performance during a volatile period (Churchill and Peter, 1998; Iacobucci and Calder, 2003). Todays financial crisis, which has resulted in an economic downturn, could be recognised as a major challenge for the profitability and even survival of many global companies. The financial crisis, which was the result of the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the USA, has transmitted internationally and caused disturbances in a wide range of powerful economies. Many countries are seen to be on the brink of recession if not already plunged into it (Deutche Welle, 2008). As the present dissertation is specifically evaluating the financial crisis impacts on consumers buying behaviour it can be recognised that some of the challenges which consumers are currently facing and are likely to experience in the near future can be divided into two categories – direct and indirect. The direct factors can be recognised as the decreasing disposable income, job insecurity and credit financing hurdles (Office for National Statistics, 2008). On the other hand the indirect aspects of the credit crunch on customer behaviour can be outlined as the challenges of credit financing and investment capability which commercial organisations face and which make these organisations unable to continue with producing high quality products and customer service (The Economist, 2008). The research question the current project aims to answer is: What type of consumer buying behaviour has been most significantly affected by the financial crisis in the UK?. As it can be observed, the question the researcher focuses on addressing can be used for outlining the research parameters of the dissertation (Bell, 2005). In order for a research to yield credible results it should be frame-worked in a manner that clearly structures the contextual boarders of a project. This can be achieved only through the identification of a set of research variables, to be explored, tested and synthesised in a logical flow (Saunders et al., 2003). In the present context, the research focus and the variables which can be recognised are: The United Kingdom; the current financial crisis; consumer buying behaviour and in particular non-business consumers; and retailing. As it can be observed the research variables outline a clear framework to guide the researcher through the development of a consistent and coherent research process. Once recognised, the research variables can be addressed through the application of sub-questions and research objectives (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). In this respect the objectives which the dissertation incorporates for responding to the research question are: the evaluation of buying behaviour characteristics, which would reveal various buying behaviour characteristics and patterns; analysis of the financial crisis impacts on consumers and in particular the effect on buying behaviour characteristics; and the identification of current buying trends of products in the UK. In the context of forming a clear framework and outlining clear objectives to address the set research question, this dissertation can be divided into six chapters to guide the research process flow. Chapter 1 introduces the readers to the topic by outlining the aim of the dissertation, the primary research question, the research objectives and the value of the examination. Chapter 2 provides a critical literature review of the topic. The literature review is structured by the application of a funneling strategy, depicted in Figure 1. The funneling strategy aims to provide greater clarity in the research boundaries as it gradually tightens the research focus by outlining the specific research variables to be explored and examined. Chapter 3 provides the research methodology employed in the current investigation. The section also reveals the research philosophy, strategy, objectives and sources, which were employed for the successful exploration of the topic. Chapter 4 outlines the research findings, which are achieved through a multi-source strategy of secondary and primary research. Chapter 5 provides a discussion on how or whether the research findings address the research question. Chapter 6, the final chapter of the dissertation, offers a conclusion to the research. This chapter is followed by a list of references. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Consumer Behaviour Consumer behaviour can be described as a process in which individuals or groups purchase a tangible or intangible product to satisfy needs or preferences (Perner, 2008). Nowadays, the role of the consumer is of great macro and micro-importance as the consuming power is an essential economic driving force. The great significance of the consumers role can be recognised from the fact that most contemporary consumers spend a great amount of time and energy on buying behaviour and decision-making activities. This is why consumer behaviour can be identified as a process, which comprises all activities related to the process of purchasing, such as: information gathering; information exchange; selecting; buying and consuming (Hansen et al., 2004). As buying behaviour is identified to encompass a wide range of a priori and post-buying activities, therefore it can be recognised as a significantly complex phenomenon. Buying behaviour is determined by two main factors – internal and external. The internal factors that determine consumer buying behaviour are presented by the various consumer segments. In other words, the particular set of characteristics a segment possess (i.e. demographic, social, cultural, life style, etc.), can be described as essential determinants of the segments buying behaviour. On the other hand, there is a set of external factors that can play a significant role in determining consumer behaviour, such as: promotions; advertising; customer service, economic and market stability, etc. In this respect, it can be concluded that buying behaviour is significantly determined and influenced by the highly interdependent combination of customers buying consciousness and external stimuli (Dawson et al., 2006). 2.2 Types of Consumer Behaviour The literature recognises four distinctive types of consumer buying behaviour. They differ with respect to the frequency of occurrence, emotional involvement, decision-making complexity and risk. In this context there are four distinctive buying behaviour patterns which can be outlined, such as: programmed behaviour; limited decision-making buying behaviour; extensive decision-making buying behaviour and impulsive buying (Arnould et al., 2002). Programmed behaviour, also known as habitual buying behaviour, is the buying pattern which can be characterised as the routine purchasing of low cost items, such as: coffee; daily newspaper; tickets, etc. It is a process that involves little search for information and low complexity of decision-making (Learn Marketing, 2008). Limited decision-making buying behaviour can be characterised as a buying pattern that involves moderate levels of decision-making and comparatively low amounts of required information to trigger purchasing. It is a buying behaviour, which can be related to the purchasing of clothes – the consumer can easily obtain information on the quality of the product and often spends short time on selecting and securing the purchase (East, 1997). In contrast to the limited decision-making buying pattern and the programmed purchasing behaviour, the literature identifies extensive decision-making buying behaviour (Foxall and Goldsmith, 1994). This type of behaviour is characterised with complex decision-making, where the buyer needs a comparatively longer period to make a decision and greater amounts of information gathering. It is buying behaviour usually provoked by expensive and infrequent purchases, which involve higher levels of economic and psychological risk (Peter and Olson, 2007). The fourth type of buying behaviour, which is observed in the literature, is the impulsive buying. Impulsive buying is characterised as a buying process that does not involve any conscious planning. It is a short-term phenomenon, which is usually provoked by an external stimuli and irritation, making particular products irresistible to consumers at a given short period of time (Wells and Prensky, 1997). As it can be observed in the literature on the different types of buying behaviour, a significant determinant, which accompanies each of the described behavioural choices, is the consumers emotion. The consumers emotion as suggested by Hansen et al. (2004) is a fundamental determinant of buying behaviour. It is a component of the purchasing decision-making, which can be recognised to be both influential to, and influenced by, a number of internal and external factors (Chaudhuri, 2006; Laros and Steenkamp, 2005). Deriving from the significant importance of consumer emotion in purchasing and the great determining value it possess, the research would suggest a new framework of buying behaviour in order for the researcher to address the initial research question adequately. The framework is adopted from the phenomenological literature and theoretical concepts, which were identified during the research process. In this respect the continuum proposed encompasses all of the buying behaviour types and the consumers emotion as their most significant determinant. At each extreme of the continuum, there can be recognised two distinctive types of buying behaviour – planned and unplanned which are to be researched and discussed in the succeeding section of the present literature review. Although emotion is a subjective phenomenon, which significantly varies according to individual traits and situational particularities, the researcher suggests that emotion is the most essential determinant of planned and unplanned buying behaviour (Havlena and Holbrook, 1986). In other words, as unplanned buying behaviour is the attribute of impulsive buying, it can be suggested that unplanned buying behaviour is greatly affected by greater emotional drives. On the other hand, as planned behaviour usually involves complex decision-making, greater information gathering and a longer time period for selection, it can be concluded that planned buying behaviour is rather resulted by rationality than emotionality. Although it is a fair clarification that many complex decision-making processes may initially occur through emotional attraction and impulse, the particular features of the buying process are the variables which are evaluated in the present research and therefore, it can be suggested that planned buying behaviour is less emotional than unplanned. 2.2.1Planned Buying Behaviour Planned consumer buying behaviour is best described by the theories of planned behaviour (TBA) and reasoned action (TRA) (Hansen, 2006). The theories reveal that planned behaviour can be determined by the consumers perceptions of complexity or in other words how difficult it is for the consumer to select and secure a particular product (Ajzen, 1991). The concept of perceived complexity is described by Keen et al. (2004), to comprise of the situational variables of channel tradeoffs and transaction costs. In other words, the level of complexity of a particular transaction, it is suggested, is determined by the opportunity cost of the alternative channels that exist and transaction costs, such as time, money and effort. Furthermore, the theory of planned behaviour specifically introduces the concept of perceived behavioural control as an essential determinant of the process of planned behavioural intention (Posthuma and Dworkin, 2000). In this respect, the TBA not only does explain the importance of the consumers perception of the levels of complexity with which a particular purchase can be associated, but also outlines the essential role of the buying risk which consumers are likely to bear during purchases. The perceived risk perspective can be recognised as a multidimensional construct. High perceived risk can result from the consumers expectation of experiencing a negative outcome from a buying interaction (Lim, 2003). In this respect if any situational determinants of the process of purchasing reveal a possibility of negative outcome, it can be suggested that this is likely to increase the levels of consumers perceived risk. In this context, situational determinants of these types can be recognised to be the transactional costs, which are associated with every purchase consumers make. In other words, the higher the transactional costs (i.e. money, time, effort, etc.) the greater the likelihood of higher levels of perceived risk (Hansen, 2006). On the other hand, perceived risk is not only determined by the transactional costs, which consumers identify. Contrary, perceived risk is often influenced by situational variables and outcomes, which the consumer fails to recognise. In other words, if a consumer is unable to clearly identify the possible outcome of a particular buying transaction, the consumer would be less inclined to purchase. In this respect, it can be concluded that another significant determinant of buying risk is uncertainty (Shim et al., 2001). This is why planned behaviour is associated with complex decision-making processes, which is characterised by extensive information gathering (Peter and Olson, 2007). 2.2.2 Unplanned Buying Behaviour As it was already identified, there are four distinctive types of buying behaviour, which can be recognised in the literature and which can be categorised in two distinctive categories of planned and unplanned buying behaviour. Each of the categories can be identified as encompassing different decision-making processes, characteristics, complexity and length (Arnould et al., 2002). Moreover, consumers decision-making goes through a number of transformations at different stages in the buying process: problem recognition; information search; evaluation of alternatives; and purchase decision (Peter and Olson, 2007). In this respect, it can be suggested that the purchasing determinants vary according to the stage at which the particular consumer is situated in the buying process at a given time. There are two distinctive but highly interdependent sources that can be identified as influencing the buying behaviour of consumers. They can be recognised as internal and external buying behaviour factors (Brassington and Pettit, 2007). The internal factors that determine consumer buying behaviour can be divided into the categories of: personal (i.e. age, life style, occupation); psychological (i.e. wants, motivation, perceptions); social (i.e. needs, social class, group and family influence); and cultural (i.e. common sense, background, beliefs, knowledge) (Groucutt et al., 2004; Iacobucci and Calder, 2003). On the other hand, the external buying behaviour factors can be identified as the marketing approaches of companies to attract consumers by advertising and promotions. Another external factor that may be recognised as highly influential to the purchasing behaviour of consumers is the micro and macro-economic stability within the particular market environment (Churchill and Peter, 1998). As it can be observed, purchasing behaviour is mainly determined by internal factors (i.e. economic principles – disposable income, status, social class) and external stimuli (i.e. marketing – promotions and advertising; economic environment) (Dawson et al., 2006). Moreover, it can be proposed that these factors are highly interdependent as, for example, the economic stability within a market environment can be suggested to be significantly influential on the internal purchasing determinants of lifestyle, occupation and disposable income, which is likely to have subsequent effect on wants, motivation and perceptions. 2.3.1 The Financial Crisis Factor The Western world is currently facing a significant economic challenge in the face of the current financial crisis. The financial crisis, which is experienced by the majority of the developed G7 countries and in particular the UK, was the result of the US subprime mortgage crisis in August 2007 (Toussaint, 2008). The US mortgage crisis was caused by the bad quality of loans which were issued in the market at that time. For a period of seven years, some of the US financial institutions had been providing numerous credits to consumers with bad credit history, which subsequently resulted in a pool of credits with a lowered possibility of repayment (Cecchetti, 2008). There are several explanations for the occurrence of the crisis, which can be recognised in the literature but are not discussed in the present dissertation as the research question is more interested in the outcomes of the crisis than the factors that caused it. The burst of the real estate mortgage bubble had a contagious effect on the rest of the well-developed Western economies (Horta et al., 2008). Many EU countries experienced the shock in their banking sectors as the provision of credit financing became a great challenge. Banks were suffering from lack of liquidity, which caused both business and non-business consumers financial hardships (The Economist, 2008). The effect of the financial crisis unfolded over a wide range of other economic aspects. The wide scope of the crisis caused a downturn in many industries, the bankruptcy of leading organisations and overall economic recession to countries like the UK, Germany and France (Deutche Welle, 2008; Hopkins, 2008; Office for National Statistics, 2008). The multi-dimensional characteristic of the financial crisis is identified to have negative impacts both on business and non-business consumers. Some of the major impacts the current financial crisis has on consumers are: job uncertainty and unemployment; decreased disposable income; decreased saving rates; fewer credit financing opportunities; greater consumption risk; higher product and service prices, etc (Allen and Gale, 2007; Gramley, 2008). The UK retailing market is recognised as one of the markets that has been most severely affected. Consumers are seen to be purchasing very carefully as they focus on efficiency buying and cutting back on waste and premium products, but consumers are not predicted to be reducing their regular consumption. Buying behaviour is seen to be shifting to products with comparatively good quality and low price (Hawkins, 2008). Furthermore, the current economic sluggishness is likely to predispose to greater consumer interest in hard discounters, which makes such retailers believe in market share expansion and prosperity. Moreover, food retailing, on which the present research question is focused, is seen to be the most stable part of the retailing industry and it is predicted to be gaining market share by the production of efficient marketing strategies. However, the failure in providing good buying experience and low variability of products, which are common for hard discounters, are predicted to be the factors that are likely to impede their market growth (Mintel Oxygen, 2008). UK consumers are also recognised to be spending more time at home (Euromonitor International, 2008). This shift of buying behaviour can be considered to promote the use of online buying channels through which consumers can compare prices and gather information for their purchasing decisions but at the same time are likely to face buying risk which is usually associated with online purchases. CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology of the present dissertation is influenced and structured by the research process onion, which was developed and introduced by Saunders et al. (2003). In this respect the Research Methodology section of this dissertation is divided into five sub-topics, each of which aims to provide a detailed explanation of the research process. Knowledge is a complex phenomenon influenced and developed by various contextual variables. In this respect, a research philosophy represents a researchers perception of the way knowledge is constructed (Saunders et al., 2003). There are three research philosophies recognised in the literature philosophies of positivism, interpretivism and realism. Each of these philosophies provides a distinctive view on the way knowledge is developed. It is important for a research process to clearly establish its research philosophy as it has a significant impact on the methodological framework applied. For example, positivism applies scientific reasoning and law-like generalisations in the process of knowledge construction (Remenyi et al., 1998). The research methodology influenced by this philosophy is characterised with a highly transparent structure to facilitate replication (Gill and Johnson, 1997). On the other hand, the research philosophy of realism identifies the existence of a number of external social objectives, which influence peoples interactions and respectively the creation of knowledge. Realism can be recognised to be close to the philosophy of positivism but at the same time possesses clearly distinctive characteristics as the philosophy highlights the inappropriateness of exploring peoples interactions in the style of natural science (Saunders et al., 2003). The philosophy, which is incorporated in the context of the present dissertation, is the research philosophy of interpretivism. Interpretivism is chosen to be the philosophical framework of the study, as the researcher believes that knowledge is a complex phenomenon, which cannot be generalised in a value-free and detached manner. Furthermore, the researcher focuses on exploring the topic by the application of critical interpretations and gradually establishing research conclusions (Remenyi et al., 1998). 3.2 Research Approach The literature outlines two distinctive research approaches, which can be applied in the present dissertation – deductive and inductive. A deductive research approach is suggested to be suitable for scientific research, where the researcher develops a hypothesis, which is tested and examined to establish a theory (Hussey and Hussey, 1997). In the present context, as the researcher aims to gradually formulate the research theory through the critical evaluation of the research variables, and as the inductive research approach follows research data to construct theory, therefore it can be suggested that the present research approach is inductive. Furthermore, the inductive research approach, which provides greater flexibility, provides the researcher with the opportunity to modify the research emphasis depending on the accumulated findings throughout the research process (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). 3.3 Research Strategy A research strategy can be explained as the tool or tools the researcher employs for addressing the research question. There are six research strategies, which can be identified in the literature, such as: experiment; survey; grounded theory; ethnography; action research and case study (Saunders et al., 2003). The present dissertation employs the research strategy of grounded theory. The researcher primarily focuses on extracting knowledge through research in the phenomenological literature. The present research strategy is appropriate as it is described in the literature to be suitable for inductive reasoning or in other words, applicable to research contexts which aim to gradually establish research assumptions and propositions (Husey and Husey, 1997). Although the present dissertation is essentially influenced by the research strategy of grounded theory, the researcher subsequently employs a primary research strategy of in-depth interviews to collect data. This primary research method is described in greater details in the Data Collection section. 3.4 Time Horizon Another important characteristic of the present research process is the time horizon. There are two time horizons recognised in the literature – longitudinal and cross-sectional. A longitudinal research process examines particular phenomenon over a given period of time, whereas cross-sectional is focused on a particular moment. The present dissertation has a cross-sectional time horizon as it is recognised to be appropriate to the research aim and the researchers resources. Firstly, the researcher was given a limited period of time which constrained the ability to conduct a longitudinal examination. Secondly, the present research question is not interested in analysing the variance of the research variables over a period of time but focused on exploring and revealing new contextual insight by suggesting new interpretations and theoretical assumptions (Robson, 2002). 3.5 Data Collection Method The present research process can be described as an exploratory one. It aims to reveal new insight and evaluate the researched phenomena in a new light. Furthermore, the research has a flexible approach to establishing its theoretical propositions, which does not mean that the research lacks clear direction and framework (Adams and Schvaneveldt, 1991). As exploratory research processes share the common research strategy of exploring the phenomenological literature and extracting expertise from specialists in the field and focus group interviews, similarly the present dissertation incorporates the research strategy of grounded theory and in-depth interviews. In this respect, it can be concluded that the present study is built on a combination of secondary and primary data. 3.5.1 Secondary Data The secondary data employed can be described as multiple source secondary data. Multiple source secondary data can be divided into two categories – area based, which comprises of academic sources and time series based, which focuses of commercial issues (Saunders et al., 2003). The use of multiple source data provides the researcher with the opportunity to develop a balanced and analytical dissertation. The academic literature is used for outlining the academic context of consumers buying behaviour, whereas the commercial sources are used for identification of the current conditions, which are likely to challenge the academic constructs. 3.5.2 Primary Data The present dissertation incorporates a multi-method research process, where the researcher combines secondary and primary data in the same study. This strategy is chosen as the researcher believes that both methods are significantly dependable on each other in the present research context, and that secondary data provides solid theoretical foundation, whereas primary data contributes to the researchers ability to address the most important issues in the present context (Robson, 2002). The primary data is extracted through the conduction of in-depth interviews. 3.5.2.1 In-depth Interviewing In-depth interviews, also known as unstructured interviews, are recognised as an appropriate data collection method as the information they reveal corresponds to the researchers aim of analysing, interpreting and responding to new contextual insight rather than reaching any law-like generalisations. This is why in-depth interviews are a common data collection method in exploratory research projects. Furthermore, in-depth interviews provide greater flexibility as they can be conducted both face-to-face and over a telephone, which is recognised not to affect the interview outcomes differently (Ghauri and Gronhaung, 2002). This can be considered as a significant facilitation especially with respect to the time constraints, which the researcher experiences. In the present context, each sub Effect of the Financial Crisis on Consumer Buying Behaviour Effect of the Financial Crisis on Consumer Buying Behaviour ABSTRACT Consumer buying behaviour is a complex phenomenon, which is comprised of a bundle of decision-making processes, economic determinants and market stimuli. Consumer purchasing behaviour has been attracting the interest of a great number of academic and commercial parties for many years. The complexity of the processes with which consumer purchasing can be associated has made the phenomenon considerably difficult to be predicted and controlled. However, as consumers are the most essential source of revenue for business organisations, therefore their behaviour is of significant importance for achieving market survival and financial prosperity. This is the reason why the present dissertation is focused on researching and analysing the phenomenon in the present financial crisis. As the current crisis is already recognised to be having a major effect on many economic and social aspects of the United Kingdom, the researcher concentrates specifically on revealing the effects the present economic downturn has on the buying behaviour of consumers. The author is highly interested in revealing the disturbances that can be identified to occur and thus provide valuable insight to commercial and academic parties in the context of predicting and controlling consumer purchasing patterns. The dissertation is specifically focused on analysing the buyer behaviour changes from a marketing perspective. The author provides a number of suggestions, which were extracted from the conducted secondary and primary investigation. The developed propositions outline the various considerations companies should integrate in their marketing campaigns in order to perform successfully, despite the financial crisis and economic downturn. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Buying behaviour can be described as the set of attitudes that characterise the patterns of consumers choices. Buying behaviour is a phenomenon that varies depending on a wide range of factors, such as: demographics, income, social and cultural factors. Apart from the essential internal factors, which can be recognised as influential to buying behaviour, there are a number of situational contexts that can be suggested to affect consumer choices. In this respect it can be proposed that consumer behaviour is a combination of customers buying consciousness and external incentives which are likely to result in behaviour remodelling (Dawson et al., 2006). This is why researchers in the field of consumer buying patterns conclude that it is derivative of function that encompasses economic principles and marketing stimuli (Hansen, 2006). As buying behaviour is a key factor for companies profitability, it is a phenomenon that has been attracting the attention of researchers for many years. One of the fields most significantly interested in consumer choice, is the field of marketing (Kotler, 2000). Marketing is the discipline focused on extracting knowledge on consumers characteristics to enable companies to respond to customers expectations and facilitate organisations in providing high quality customer service (Groucutt et al., 2004). This is why it can be suggested that the context of the present dissertation could be of significant importance for marketing researchers and professionals. As the present project aims to analyse the financial crisis effects on consumer behaviour it can be suggested that the in depth scrutiny which the current examination would establish could transform into a valuable source of marketing direction. In other words, the present dissertation is likely to transform into a valuable source of marketing comprehensiveness as it would reveal knowledge on the likely changes in buying behaviour which the current financial and economic downturn is causing and thus provide commercial organisations with a piece of research that could stimulate greater appropriateness and integrity in companies business performance during a volatile period (Churchill and Peter, 1998; Iacobucci and Calder, 2003). Todays financial crisis, which has resulted in an economic downturn, could be recognised as a major challenge for the profitability and even survival of many global companies. The financial crisis, which was the result of the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the USA, has transmitted internationally and caused disturbances in a wide range of powerful economies. Many countries are seen to be on the brink of recession if not already plunged into it (Deutche Welle, 2008). As the present dissertation is specifically evaluating the financial crisis impacts on consumers buying behaviour it can be recognised that some of the challenges which consumers are currently facing and are likely to experience in the near future can be divided into two categories – direct and indirect. The direct factors can be recognised as the decreasing disposable income, job insecurity and credit financing hurdles (Office for National Statistics, 2008). On the other hand the indirect aspects of the credit crunch on customer behaviour can be outlined as the challenges of credit financing and investment capability which commercial organisations face and which make these organisations unable to continue with producing high quality products and customer service (The Economist, 2008). The research question the current project aims to answer is: What type of consumer buying behaviour has been most significantly affected by the financial crisis in the UK?. As it can be observed, the question the researcher focuses on addressing can be used for outlining the research parameters of the dissertation (Bell, 2005). In order for a research to yield credible results it should be frame-worked in a manner that clearly structures the contextual boarders of a project. This can be achieved only through the identification of a set of research variables, to be explored, tested and synthesised in a logical flow (Saunders et al., 2003). In the present context, the research focus and the variables which can be recognised are: The United Kingdom; the current financial crisis; consumer buying behaviour and in particular non-business consumers; and retailing. As it can be observed the research variables outline a clear framework to guide the researcher through the development of a consistent and coherent research process. Once recognised, the research variables can be addressed through the application of sub-questions and research objectives (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). In this respect the objectives which the dissertation incorporates for responding to the research question are: the evaluation of buying behaviour characteristics, which would reveal various buying behaviour characteristics and patterns; analysis of the financial crisis impacts on consumers and in particular the effect on buying behaviour characteristics; and the identification of current buying trends of products in the UK. In the context of forming a clear framework and outlining clear objectives to address the set research question, this dissertation can be divided into six chapters to guide the research process flow. Chapter 1 introduces the readers to the topic by outlining the aim of the dissertation, the primary research question, the research objectives and the value of the examination. Chapter 2 provides a critical literature review of the topic. The literature review is structured by the application of a funneling strategy, depicted in Figure 1. The funneling strategy aims to provide greater clarity in the research boundaries as it gradually tightens the research focus by outlining the specific research variables to be explored and examined. Chapter 3 provides the research methodology employed in the current investigation. The section also reveals the research philosophy, strategy, objectives and sources, which were employed for the successful exploration of the topic. Chapter 4 outlines the research findings, which are achieved through a multi-source strategy of secondary and primary research. Chapter 5 provides a discussion on how or whether the research findings address the research question. Chapter 6, the final chapter of the dissertation, offers a conclusion to the research. This chapter is followed by a list of references. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Consumer Behaviour Consumer behaviour can be described as a process in which individuals or groups purchase a tangible or intangible product to satisfy needs or preferences (Perner, 2008). Nowadays, the role of the consumer is of great macro and micro-importance as the consuming power is an essential economic driving force. The great significance of the consumers role can be recognised from the fact that most contemporary consumers spend a great amount of time and energy on buying behaviour and decision-making activities. This is why consumer behaviour can be identified as a process, which comprises all activities related to the process of purchasing, such as: information gathering; information exchange; selecting; buying and consuming (Hansen et al., 2004). As buying behaviour is identified to encompass a wide range of a priori and post-buying activities, therefore it can be recognised as a significantly complex phenomenon. Buying behaviour is determined by two main factors – internal and external. The internal factors that determine consumer buying behaviour are presented by the various consumer segments. In other words, the particular set of characteristics a segment possess (i.e. demographic, social, cultural, life style, etc.), can be described as essential determinants of the segments buying behaviour. On the other hand, there is a set of external factors that can play a significant role in determining consumer behaviour, such as: promotions; advertising; customer service, economic and market stability, etc. In this respect, it can be concluded that buying behaviour is significantly determined and influenced by the highly interdependent combination of customers buying consciousness and external stimuli (Dawson et al., 2006). 2.2 Types of Consumer Behaviour The literature recognises four distinctive types of consumer buying behaviour. They differ with respect to the frequency of occurrence, emotional involvement, decision-making complexity and risk. In this context there are four distinctive buying behaviour patterns which can be outlined, such as: programmed behaviour; limited decision-making buying behaviour; extensive decision-making buying behaviour and impulsive buying (Arnould et al., 2002). Programmed behaviour, also known as habitual buying behaviour, is the buying pattern which can be characterised as the routine purchasing of low cost items, such as: coffee; daily newspaper; tickets, etc. It is a process that involves little search for information and low complexity of decision-making (Learn Marketing, 2008). Limited decision-making buying behaviour can be characterised as a buying pattern that involves moderate levels of decision-making and comparatively low amounts of required information to trigger purchasing. It is a buying behaviour, which can be related to the purchasing of clothes – the consumer can easily obtain information on the quality of the product and often spends short time on selecting and securing the purchase (East, 1997). In contrast to the limited decision-making buying pattern and the programmed purchasing behaviour, the literature identifies extensive decision-making buying behaviour (Foxall and Goldsmith, 1994). This type of behaviour is characterised with complex decision-making, where the buyer needs a comparatively longer period to make a decision and greater amounts of information gathering. It is buying behaviour usually provoked by expensive and infrequent purchases, which involve higher levels of economic and psychological risk (Peter and Olson, 2007). The fourth type of buying behaviour, which is observed in the literature, is the impulsive buying. Impulsive buying is characterised as a buying process that does not involve any conscious planning. It is a short-term phenomenon, which is usually provoked by an external stimuli and irritation, making particular products irresistible to consumers at a given short period of time (Wells and Prensky, 1997). As it can be observed in the literature on the different types of buying behaviour, a significant determinant, which accompanies each of the described behavioural choices, is the consumers emotion. The consumers emotion as suggested by Hansen et al. (2004) is a fundamental determinant of buying behaviour. It is a component of the purchasing decision-making, which can be recognised to be both influential to, and influenced by, a number of internal and external factors (Chaudhuri, 2006; Laros and Steenkamp, 2005). Deriving from the significant importance of consumer emotion in purchasing and the great determining value it possess, the research would suggest a new framework of buying behaviour in order for the researcher to address the initial research question adequately. The framework is adopted from the phenomenological literature and theoretical concepts, which were identified during the research process. In this respect the continuum proposed encompasses all of the buying behaviour types and the consumers emotion as their most significant determinant. At each extreme of the continuum, there can be recognised two distinctive types of buying behaviour – planned and unplanned which are to be researched and discussed in the succeeding section of the present literature review. Although emotion is a subjective phenomenon, which significantly varies according to individual traits and situational particularities, the researcher suggests that emotion is the most essential determinant of planned and unplanned buying behaviour (Havlena and Holbrook, 1986). In other words, as unplanned buying behaviour is the attribute of impulsive buying, it can be suggested that unplanned buying behaviour is greatly affected by greater emotional drives. On the other hand, as planned behaviour usually involves complex decision-making, greater information gathering and a longer time period for selection, it can be concluded that planned buying behaviour is rather resulted by rationality than emotionality. Although it is a fair clarification that many complex decision-making processes may initially occur through emotional attraction and impulse, the particular features of the buying process are the variables which are evaluated in the present research and therefore, it can be suggested that planned buying behaviour is less emotional than unplanned. 2.2.1Planned Buying Behaviour Planned consumer buying behaviour is best described by the theories of planned behaviour (TBA) and reasoned action (TRA) (Hansen, 2006). The theories reveal that planned behaviour can be determined by the consumers perceptions of complexity or in other words how difficult it is for the consumer to select and secure a particular product (Ajzen, 1991). The concept of perceived complexity is described by Keen et al. (2004), to comprise of the situational variables of channel tradeoffs and transaction costs. In other words, the level of complexity of a particular transaction, it is suggested, is determined by the opportunity cost of the alternative channels that exist and transaction costs, such as time, money and effort. Furthermore, the theory of planned behaviour specifically introduces the concept of perceived behavioural control as an essential determinant of the process of planned behavioural intention (Posthuma and Dworkin, 2000). In this respect, the TBA not only does explain the importance of the consumers perception of the levels of complexity with which a particular purchase can be associated, but also outlines the essential role of the buying risk which consumers are likely to bear during purchases. The perceived risk perspective can be recognised as a multidimensional construct. High perceived risk can result from the consumers expectation of experiencing a negative outcome from a buying interaction (Lim, 2003). In this respect if any situational determinants of the process of purchasing reveal a possibility of negative outcome, it can be suggested that this is likely to increase the levels of consumers perceived risk. In this context, situational determinants of these types can be recognised to be the transactional costs, which are associated with every purchase consumers make. In other words, the higher the transactional costs (i.e. money, time, effort, etc.) the greater the likelihood of higher levels of perceived risk (Hansen, 2006). On the other hand, perceived risk is not only determined by the transactional costs, which consumers identify. Contrary, perceived risk is often influenced by situational variables and outcomes, which the consumer fails to recognise. In other words, if a consumer is unable to clearly identify the possible outcome of a particular buying transaction, the consumer would be less inclined to purchase. In this respect, it can be concluded that another significant determinant of buying risk is uncertainty (Shim et al., 2001). This is why planned behaviour is associated with complex decision-making processes, which is characterised by extensive information gathering (Peter and Olson, 2007). 2.2.2 Unplanned Buying Behaviour As it was already identified, there are four distinctive types of buying behaviour, which can be recognised in the literature and which can be categorised in two distinctive categories of planned and unplanned buying behaviour. Each of the categories can be identified as encompassing different decision-making processes, characteristics, complexity and length (Arnould et al., 2002). Moreover, consumers decision-making goes through a number of transformations at different stages in the buying process: problem recognition; information search; evaluation of alternatives; and purchase decision (Peter and Olson, 2007). In this respect, it can be suggested that the purchasing determinants vary according to the stage at which the particular consumer is situated in the buying process at a given time. There are two distinctive but highly interdependent sources that can be identified as influencing the buying behaviour of consumers. They can be recognised as internal and external buying behaviour factors (Brassington and Pettit, 2007). The internal factors that determine consumer buying behaviour can be divided into the categories of: personal (i.e. age, life style, occupation); psychological (i.e. wants, motivation, perceptions); social (i.e. needs, social class, group and family influence); and cultural (i.e. common sense, background, beliefs, knowledge) (Groucutt et al., 2004; Iacobucci and Calder, 2003). On the other hand, the external buying behaviour factors can be identified as the marketing approaches of companies to attract consumers by advertising and promotions. Another external factor that may be recognised as highly influential to the purchasing behaviour of consumers is the micro and macro-economic stability within the particular market environment (Churchill and Peter, 1998). As it can be observed, purchasing behaviour is mainly determined by internal factors (i.e. economic principles – disposable income, status, social class) and external stimuli (i.e. marketing – promotions and advertising; economic environment) (Dawson et al., 2006). Moreover, it can be proposed that these factors are highly interdependent as, for example, the economic stability within a market environment can be suggested to be significantly influential on the internal purchasing determinants of lifestyle, occupation and disposable income, which is likely to have subsequent effect on wants, motivation and perceptions. 2.3.1 The Financial Crisis Factor The Western world is currently facing a significant economic challenge in the face of the current financial crisis. The financial crisis, which is experienced by the majority of the developed G7 countries and in particular the UK, was the result of the US subprime mortgage crisis in August 2007 (Toussaint, 2008). The US mortgage crisis was caused by the bad quality of loans which were issued in the market at that time. For a period of seven years, some of the US financial institutions had been providing numerous credits to consumers with bad credit history, which subsequently resulted in a pool of credits with a lowered possibility of repayment (Cecchetti, 2008). There are several explanations for the occurrence of the crisis, which can be recognised in the literature but are not discussed in the present dissertation as the research question is more interested in the outcomes of the crisis than the factors that caused it. The burst of the real estate mortgage bubble had a contagious effect on the rest of the well-developed Western economies (Horta et al., 2008). Many EU countries experienced the shock in their banking sectors as the provision of credit financing became a great challenge. Banks were suffering from lack of liquidity, which caused both business and non-business consumers financial hardships (The Economist, 2008). The effect of the financial crisis unfolded over a wide range of other economic aspects. The wide scope of the crisis caused a downturn in many industries, the bankruptcy of leading organisations and overall economic recession to countries like the UK, Germany and France (Deutche Welle, 2008; Hopkins, 2008; Office for National Statistics, 2008). The multi-dimensional characteristic of the financial crisis is identified to have negative impacts both on business and non-business consumers. Some of the major impacts the current financial crisis has on consumers are: job uncertainty and unemployment; decreased disposable income; decreased saving rates; fewer credit financing opportunities; greater consumption risk; higher product and service prices, etc (Allen and Gale, 2007; Gramley, 2008). The UK retailing market is recognised as one of the markets that has been most severely affected. Consumers are seen to be purchasing very carefully as they focus on efficiency buying and cutting back on waste and premium products, but consumers are not predicted to be reducing their regular consumption. Buying behaviour is seen to be shifting to products with comparatively good quality and low price (Hawkins, 2008). Furthermore, the current economic sluggishness is likely to predispose to greater consumer interest in hard discounters, which makes such retailers believe in market share expansion and prosperity. Moreover, food retailing, on which the present research question is focused, is seen to be the most stable part of the retailing industry and it is predicted to be gaining market share by the production of efficient marketing strategies. However, the failure in providing good buying experience and low variability of products, which are common for hard discounters, are predicted to be the factors that are likely to impede their market growth (Mintel Oxygen, 2008). UK consumers are also recognised to be spending more time at home (Euromonitor International, 2008). This shift of buying behaviour can be considered to promote the use of online buying channels through which consumers can compare prices and gather information for their purchasing decisions but at the same time are likely to face buying risk which is usually associated with online purchases. CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology of the present dissertation is influenced and structured by the research process onion, which was developed and introduced by Saunders et al. (2003). In this respect the Research Methodology section of this dissertation is divided into five sub-topics, each of which aims to provide a detailed explanation of the research process. Knowledge is a complex phenomenon influenced and developed by various contextual variables. In this respect, a research philosophy represents a researchers perception of the way knowledge is constructed (Saunders et al., 2003). There are three research philosophies recognised in the literature philosophies of positivism, interpretivism and realism. Each of these philosophies provides a distinctive view on the way knowledge is developed. It is important for a research process to clearly establish its research philosophy as it has a significant impact on the methodological framework applied. For example, positivism applies scientific reasoning and law-like generalisations in the process of knowledge construction (Remenyi et al., 1998). The research methodology influenced by this philosophy is characterised with a highly transparent structure to facilitate replication (Gill and Johnson, 1997). On the other hand, the research philosophy of realism identifies the existence of a number of external social objectives, which influence peoples interactions and respectively the creation of knowledge. Realism can be recognised to be close to the philosophy of positivism but at the same time possesses clearly distinctive characteristics as the philosophy highlights the inappropriateness of exploring peoples interactions in the style of natural science (Saunders et al., 2003). The philosophy, which is incorporated in the context of the present dissertation, is the research philosophy of interpretivism. Interpretivism is chosen to be the philosophical framework of the study, as the researcher believes that knowledge is a complex phenomenon, which cannot be generalised in a value-free and detached manner. Furthermore, the researcher focuses on exploring the topic by the application of critical interpretations and gradually establishing research conclusions (Remenyi et al., 1998). 3.2 Research Approach The literature outlines two distinctive research approaches, which can be applied in the present dissertation – deductive and inductive. A deductive research approach is suggested to be suitable for scientific research, where the researcher develops a hypothesis, which is tested and examined to establish a theory (Hussey and Hussey, 1997). In the present context, as the researcher aims to gradually formulate the research theory through the critical evaluation of the research variables, and as the inductive research approach follows research data to construct theory, therefore it can be suggested that the present research approach is inductive. Furthermore, the inductive research approach, which provides greater flexibility, provides the researcher with the opportunity to modify the research emphasis depending on the accumulated findings throughout the research process (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). 3.3 Research Strategy A research strategy can be explained as the tool or tools the researcher employs for addressing the research question. There are six research strategies, which can be identified in the literature, such as: experiment; survey; grounded theory; ethnography; action research and case study (Saunders et al., 2003). The present dissertation employs the research strategy of grounded theory. The researcher primarily focuses on extracting knowledge through research in the phenomenological literature. The present research strategy is appropriate as it is described in the literature to be suitable for inductive reasoning or in other words, applicable to research contexts which aim to gradually establish research assumptions and propositions (Husey and Husey, 1997). Although the present dissertation is essentially influenced by the research strategy of grounded theory, the researcher subsequently employs a primary research strategy of in-depth interviews to collect data. This primary research method is described in greater details in the Data Collection section. 3.4 Time Horizon Another important characteristic of the present research process is the time horizon. There are two time horizons recognised in the literature – longitudinal and cross-sectional. A longitudinal research process examines particular phenomenon over a given period of time, whereas cross-sectional is focused on a particular moment. The present dissertation has a cross-sectional time horizon as it is recognised to be appropriate to the research aim and the researchers resources. Firstly, the researcher was given a limited period of time which constrained the ability to conduct a longitudinal examination. Secondly, the present research question is not interested in analysing the variance of the research variables over a period of time but focused on exploring and revealing new contextual insight by suggesting new interpretations and theoretical assumptions (Robson, 2002). 3.5 Data Collection Method The present research process can be described as an exploratory one. It aims to reveal new insight and evaluate the researched phenomena in a new light. Furthermore, the research has a flexible approach to establishing its theoretical propositions, which does not mean that the research lacks clear direction and framework (Adams and Schvaneveldt, 1991). As exploratory research processes share the common research strategy of exploring the phenomenological literature and extracting expertise from specialists in the field and focus group interviews, similarly the present dissertation incorporates the research strategy of grounded theory and in-depth interviews. In this respect, it can be concluded that the present study is built on a combination of secondary and primary data. 3.5.1 Secondary Data The secondary data employed can be described as multiple source secondary data. Multiple source secondary data can be divided into two categories – area based, which comprises of academic sources and time series based, which focuses of commercial issues (Saunders et al., 2003). The use of multiple source data provides the researcher with the opportunity to develop a balanced and analytical dissertation. The academic literature is used for outlining the academic context of consumers buying behaviour, whereas the commercial sources are used for identification of the current conditions, which are likely to challenge the academic constructs. 3.5.2 Primary Data The present dissertation incorporates a multi-method research process, where the researcher combines secondary and primary data in the same study. This strategy is chosen as the researcher believes that both methods are significantly dependable on each other in the present research context, and that secondary data provides solid theoretical foundation, whereas primary data contributes to the researchers ability to address the most important issues in the present context (Robson, 2002). The primary data is extracted through the conduction of in-depth interviews. 3.5.2.1 In-depth Interviewing In-depth interviews, also known as unstructured interviews, are recognised as an appropriate data collection method as the information they reveal corresponds to the researchers aim of analysing, interpreting and responding to new contextual insight rather than reaching any law-like generalisations. This is why in-depth interviews are a common data collection method in exploratory research projects. Furthermore, in-depth interviews provide greater flexibility as they can be conducted both face-to-face and over a telephone, which is recognised not to affect the interview outcomes differently (Ghauri and Gronhaung, 2002). This can be considered as a significant facilitation especially with respect to the time constraints, which the researcher experiences. In the present context, each sub